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• Title: Bridging the gap (LNG Industry Autumn 2005)
• Author(s): Kevin Landfried, Jeffrey Steimer and Barbara Weber, CB&I, USA, present the elba island expansion project as part of LNG import expansion plans to bridge infrastructure gaps in North America.
• Synopsis:
  • Around the world, countries that have large amounts of stranded natural gas are building liquefaction terminals to ship liquefied natural gas (LNG) to growing markets in Europe, Asia and North America. Currently in North America, five regasification terminals have the capacity to import 4.2 billion ft3/d of natural gas. In the USA alone, natural gas demand is expected to increase by 1.5%/y between 2003 - 2025, reaching 30.7 trillion ft3/y in 2025. During the same period, natural gas production in the USA is expected to grow at only 0.6%/y, reaching 21.8 trillion ft3/y by 2025, leaving a significant shortfall. To bridge the widening gap, the USA is expected to increase LNG imports to 8.9 trillion ft3 by 20251. As a result, the percentage of the US natural gas supply provided by LNG is projected to increase from just over 2% in 2003 to more than 20% in 2025.

• Title: Terminal considerations (LNG Industry Autumn 2005)
• Author(s): Kevin M. Kulish, Kamal Shah and Leiv Wanik, Aker Kvaerner Inc., USA, examine design and economic considerations for onshore and offshore LNG terminals.
• Synopsis:
  • A recent National Petroleum Council report forecasts that the USA will provide just 75% of its own long term gas needs. Currently, approximately 2% of total US natural gas demand is met through imported LNG but this is estimated to grow to approximately 15%. While many land based LNG terminals have an excellent safety record, many communities have been hostile to the idea of an LNG terminal in their area even as prices and demand for natural gas rise. As such, locating LNG terminals offshore has numerous attractions, including eliminating the need to bring large LNG carriers through narrow channels and other such restrictions.

• Title: A concrete solution (LNG Industry Autumn 2005)
• Author(s): Brad S. Hubbard, Mustang Engineering, LP, USA, discusses the benefits of concrete floating LNG facilities, coupled with new technologies for cryogenic processing of natural gas.
• Synopsis:
  • Global demand for hydrocarbons, particularly oil and natural gas, is continuing to increase in intensity. Burgeoning economies, many having minimal hydrocarbon requirements until recently, are now creating strong competition for existing supplies and thus placing a strain on the world’s traditional hydrocarbon delivery capabilities. As a result of this demand situation, oil and natural gas prices have reached historic peaks. Natural gas (NG), in particular, has carved its niche in the fuel and chemical spectrums as an efficient feedstock for conversion to a wide array of chemical components, as well as a clean burning multipurpose energy source for residential and commercial heating, power generation and, more recently, vehicle fuel. Hence, demand for this hydrocarbon is at an all time high and is projected to continue its escalation. Alternative fuel sources, including liquefied natural gas (LNG) formed by the cryogenic conversion of NG, are becoming more economically viable, spurring the exploration of a host of supply and deliverability options.

• Title: Capacity consideration (LNG Industry Autumn 2005)
• Author(s): Barend Pek, Shell Global Solutions International BV, the Netherlands, discusses the technologies available to LNG plant designers for optimising production rates.
• Synopsis:
  • As the popularity of natural gas as an energy source continues to grow, LNG producers are faced with maximising production to meet the increasing demand. When burned, natural gas produces the lowest levels of greenhouse gases of all the hydrocarbon fuels. For example, power generation from natural gas typically emits half as much carbon dioxide as power generation from coal.

• Title: Modelling for the LNG value chain (LNG Industry Autumn 2005)
• Author(s): Michael Szatny and Sanjeev Mullick, Aspen Technology, USA, describe LNG process automation, from design through production and regasification.
• Synopsis:
  • LNG is a critical energy resource today and, with numerous new LNG ventures under development, its importance is set to increase. While the market is becoming more mature, LNG trading prices remain very dynamic, due to demand-supply volatility, geopolitical concerns, regulatory issues and public scrutiny. To better manage this uncertainty, the systems making up the entire LNG value chain (from production, liquefaction and shipping in specially designed vessels, to regasification at the destination terminal) have to be designed and operated in an optimal, safe and reliable fashion.

• Title: A class of their own (LNG Industry Autumn 2005)
• Author(s): William J. Sember, ABS, discusses the importance of class societies in the advancement of LNG technology and bringing the next generation carriers to market.
• Synopsis:
  • With the global market for liquefied natural gas (LNG) growing at more than three times the growth rate for oil or traditional gas markets, operators are continuously looking for efficient and safe ways for containing, transferring and transporting LNG. Owners, builders and designers are moving forward in a safe yet commercially viable way to develop the next generation of LNG carriers that exceed 200 000 m3.

• Title: Effective risk management (LNG Industry Spring 2006)
• Author(s): Art Kenich, DNV Consulting, Norway, outlines the main risks in the total LNG value chain.
• Synopsis:
  • On a worldwide basis there are nearly 100 proposed new land-based LNG export or import terminals that have not achieved project sanction. Rarely a month goes by without another LNG terminal project being added to the list of proposed new terminals. At the same time, an increasing number of LNG projects that have been sanctioned but not completed are reporting both significant delays and budget overruns relative to the original objectives determined at the time of obtaining project sanction. With the benefit of hindsight, it is becoming increasingly apparent that management of risks in some of these projects has not been effective. This is not surprising when project objectives can be affected by hundreds and thousands of risks throughout the life of a project. Such risks have the potential to adversely impact the project objectives related to schedule, budget, regularity, health, safety, the environment and possibly the project's financial viability.

• Title: Advances in high pressure LNG pumps (LNG Industry Spring 2006)
• Author(s): Keijun Kamio and Dr Kevin A. Kaupert, Ebara Cryodynamics, USA, discuss advances in high pressure LNG sendout pumps.
• Synopsis:
  • High pressure cryogenic sendout pumps are utilised to distribute imported LNG. Recent growth in the natural gas market has spurred demand for higher flow capacity LNG sendout systems. To meet this demand, gas suppliers can use more pumps in their sendout system, but this imposes additional capital cost. Instead, they are purchasing LNG sendout pumps with increased flow capacity. This increased flow capacity has driven the associated pump motor power higher, to levels now routinely exceeding 2 MW. These levels are accompanied by greater structural forces that must be accommodated in the design of reliable pumps. They also imply that efficiency is more scrutinised to minimise operating costs. These factors motivated design advances in high pressure LNG sendout pumps that focused on high reliability and efficiency at higher flow capacities.

• Title: Reliquefaction rewards (LNG Industry Spring 2006)
• Author(s): Tore Lunde and Eirik Melaaen, Hamworthy Gas Systems, Norway, look at how reliquefaction can help LNG carriers achieve significant savings.
• Synopsis:
  • Unlike all other cargo ships, liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers have continued to use steam turbine propulsion plant despite more efficient diesel engines being available. This is because the gas that naturally evaporates from the cargo (called boil off or BOG) is used as fuel for the steam turbines, and until recently there was no other use for it. The ability to reliquefy the gas given off by the cargo now makes it possible to increase the amount of LNG delivered to the discharge port, which is more profitable than using it as ships’ bunkers.

• Title: Reliable protection (LNG Industry Spring 2006)
• Author(s): David H. Kroon, Raju Narayan and Gerry Williams, Corrpro Companies, Inc., USA, present the needs and benefits of complete corrosion prevention designs at LNG facilities.
• Synopsis:
  • LNG facilities require the use of virtually all corrosion prevention technologies, including material selection, protective coatings, cathodic protection and corrosion monitoring. Materials used for electrical grounding systems impact the rate of corrosion and corrosion protection requirements for at grade and underground facilities. Protective coatings are needed for above grade piping and tanks, some of which are in highly corrosive marine environments. Cathodic protection is essential to assure the necessary failure free service life for underground piping, above ground storage tanks and marine structures constructed of either carbon steel or reinforced concrete. Corrosion monitoring is used to identify locations with high rates of corrosion in process piping and measures the effectiveness of chemical treatments.